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Dopamine and the prefrontal cortex

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Reckless Youth, by Prof. Robert Sapolsky  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=83HDJA4tqoM Summary: Adolescence is driven by a powerful imbalance between two major brain systems: the dopamine reward network and the prefrontal cortex. During the teenage years, the brain’s dopamine system becomes highly active and extremely sensitive to reward, excitement, novelty, and social approval. At the same time, the prefrontal cortex — the region responsible for judgment, impulse control, long-term planning, and restraint — is still under construction and does not fully mature until around the mid-twenties. This developmental mismatch explains much of the spontaneity, recklessness, emotional intensity, and risk-taking associated with adolescence. The dopamine reward system, centered around pathways connecting the ventral tegmental area and the nucleus accumbens, reaches a high level of activation by puberty. Dopamine is not simply the “pleasure chemical”; it is deeply involved in motivat...
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Viruses Besides Ebola That Can Cause Long-Term Effects

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When people think about dangerous viruses, they often focus on the immediate illness. However, some viruses continue affecting the body long after the initial infection has passed.  Ebola is one well-known example, with survivors often experiencing ongoing fatigue, joint pain, eye problems, and neurological complications.  But Ebola is far from the only virus linked to lasting health issues. Medical researchers now recognize that many viral infections can trigger long-term complications, sometimes lasting months, years, or even a lifetime. These lingering conditions are often referred to as post-viral syndromes . COVID-19 and Long COVID One of the most widely discussed examples today is SARS-CoV-2 , the virus that causes COVID-19. Millions of people worldwide have reported persistent symptoms after recovering from the acute infection, a condition commonly called Long COVID . Long COVID can affect multiple organs and systems, including: Chronic fatigue Brain fog and memo...
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How Chronic Stress Physically Reshapes the Brain

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Research into the neurobiology of stress has transformed the understanding and treatment of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). Studies in animals revealed that intense and prolonged stress does not simply affect emotions psychologically—it physically remodels the brain itself. These discoveries have led directly to new treatments that help restore emotional regulation and cognitive control in people suffering from trauma-related disorders. The Brain Under Stress When a person experiences danger or trauma, the brain rapidly releases stress chemicals known as catecholamines, particularly norepinephrine. In short bursts, this response is protective and necessary for survival. However, during chronic stress or repeated trauma, these neurochemical systems become overactivated. High levels of norepinephrine weaken the functioning of the prefrontal cortex (PFC), the region responsible for rational thinking, impulse control, concentration, and emotional regulation. At the same time, stress...
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