Mitochondria as Central Regulators of Human Physiology and Disease: Implications for Immunity, Neurological Function, Sensory Systems, and Cellular Homeostasis
Revision: Abstract Mitochondria generate ATP while regulating calcium signaling, apoptosis, metabolism, immune responses, and reactive oxygen species (ROS). Because organs with high energy demands—including the brain, heart, skeletal muscle, retina, cochlea, liver, endocrine glands, and immune system—depend heavily on mitochondrial function, mitochondrial dysfunction contributes to aging and diseases affecting multiple organ systems. This review summarizes the roles of mitochondria in neurodegeneration, immunity, circulation, endocrine physiology, muscle and skin homeostasis, vision, hearing, mitochondrial genetics, and emerging therapeutic strategies. Introduction Mitochondria evolved from an ancestral bacterium through endosymbiosis approximately two billion years ago and remain indispensable for eukaryotic life. In addition to ATP production, they regulate calcium homeostasis, apoptosis, redox balance, innate immunity, and metabolic adaptation. Although mitochondria possess the...